Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia exhibits low performance across all four categories of the Global State of Democracy framework. It falls among the bottom 25 per cent of the world’s performers in most factors of democratic performance. Compared to five years prior, it has experienced improvements in Economic Equality and Absence of Corruption. Saudi Arabia owns 17 per cent of the world’s proven petroleum reserves, with oil revenues accounting for roughly 62 per cent of its budget revenues. As the largest oil producer within OPEC, the Kingdom wields considerable influence over global oil prices, shielding the regime from criticism.
Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy that never experienced colonialism. The Kingdom was founded in 1932 after the Al-Saud family captured and united the diverse tribes in the peninsula into a coherent nation. Since the 18th century, the Al-Saud family has had a symbiotic relationship with the (Sunni) Wahhabi religious movement, using this to claim religious legitimacy along with its guardianship of the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Although formally an Islamic state, Saudi Arabia has to some extent restrained the influence of religious authorities and opened up to the interpretation of Islamic texts (ijtihad). There are no executive elections, though it infrequently holds municipal elections (most recently in 2015, when women could vote and run for office for the first time).
Saudi Arabia is a Sunni majority country, but about 12 per cent of the total population are Shia. The Shia have faced longstanding discrimination and repression and have regularly protested for more rights (though violently repressed). Saudi Arabia cut diplomatic ties with Shia Iran between 2016 and 2023, and has fought a long and devastating war in Yemen against the Iran-aligned Houthi. The conflict led the government to view its Shia population as a potential fifth column. Saudi Arabia also has a significant migrant worker population who operate under the kafala (sponsorship) system. Despite limited reforms, this system disempowers migrant workers, leaving them vulnerable to abuse.
Saudi Arabia has a record of imprisoning human rights defenders and regime critics, with the monarchy preempting challenges by cracking down on opposition even as it moves to partially meet demands. Economic rents have long stabilized the monarchy and help it quell citizen unrest, but global decarbonization commitments threaten this social contract. Crown Prince Mohammed Bin Salman sought to rebrand the Kingdom as a modern investment and technology hub by easing some Western cultural restrictions and promoting reforms like allowing women to drive. Women’s rights remain limited and the country scores low on the GSoD’s measure of Gender Equality. Women must rely on male guardians for basic rights of citizenship and movement. Activists who campaigned to end the women’s driving ban were arrested even as the ban was repealed, and those released are still subject to travel bans. Although somewhat open to LGBTQIA+ tourists, the country criminalizes same-sex relations and non-normative gender expression.
Looking ahead, it will be important to watch the government’s efforts to attract investors and diversify the economy beyond oil, particularly with regard to the participation of young Saudis, who make up about 67 per cent of the population. Both groups are often most discouraged by modern lifestyles restrictions, and the fact that authorities may need to accommodate their expectations could drive broader reforms and potential advances in Participation and Rights.
Last Updated: June 2025
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December 2023
At least 170 executions carried out in 2023
Saudi Arabia executed four individuals on 31 December, as reported by the Saudi Press Agency. This event marked the culmination of the deadliest month for executions in the country, with a total of 38 carried out in December 2023. Overall, the kingdom executed 170 people in 2023, a rise from the 147 convicts executed the previous year. The 2023 executions included 33 individuals accused of terrorism-related offenses and two soldiers found guilty of treason. However, rights group Reprieve estimates the actual number of executions could exceed 172, as it believes some may not have been publicly disclosed. Despite facing criticism from human rights activists for its frequent use of capital punishment, Saudi Arabia asserts that these executions are in line with sharia law and are necessary to uphold public order.
Sources: Saudi Press Agency, Reprieve, Middle East Eye, The New Arab
August 2023
Mass killing of migrants at Yemen-Saudi border
A report released by Human Rights Watch on 21 August accused Saudi security forces of conducting ‘widespread and systematic’ killings of hundreds of Ethiopian migrants and asylum seekers at the Yemen-Saudi Arabia border. The report uncovers a pattern of lethal force used by Saudi authorities between March 2022 and June 2023, suggesting that these actions could potentially amount to crimes against humanity. The report alleges that Saudi border guards fired small arms, light weapons, and explosive weapons at migrants attempting to cross from Yemen into Saudi Arabia. Additionally, the victims were reportedly subjected to sexual abuse, physical violence, torture, and arbitrary detention. Despite these serious allegations, the Saudi government has dismissed them as baseless, asserting that they are not grounded on credible sources The border region has become a primary transit point for people from the Horn of Africa aiming to reach Saudi Arabia, with many depending on traffickers and thereby becoming vulnerable to violence. While the exact number of victims is still unclear, the report suggests that the actual number of those killed and injured may be higher than reported.
Sources: Associated Press, Al Jazeera, Human Rights Watch, Middle East Eye, Al Monitor
February 2023
Number of executions has increased under the reign of King Salman
A report by the European Saudi Organisation for Human Rights (ESOHR) and by Reprieve published in February revealed a concerning increase in the number of executions in Saudi Arabia, with the past six years among the worst in the country’s modern history. Saudi Arabia’s use of the death penalty has drastically increased since King Salman and Crown Prince (and Prime Minister) Mohammed bin Salman came to power in 2015. The annual rate of executions has grown from an average of 70.8 executions per year between 2010-2014 to an average of 129.5 executions per year between 2015-2022 – an increase of 82 per cent. Despite extensive reforms and recent efforts to modernize the country, the new data show that international human rights law continues to be routinely violated in Saudi Arabia. The report notes that the death penalty is used by the new government to repress political opposition and silence dissidents.
Sources: Reprieve, Middle East Monitor, Deutsche Welle, British Broadcasting Corporation
January 2023
More rights and opportunities for Saudi women
Several milestones were recorded in January for women’s inclusion and empowerment. More than 250 women graduated from training to join the Saudi Armed Forces, the first ones to do so since the country opened up military recruitment to women in February 2022. Similarly, more than 30 women became qualified operators in the high-speed rail network. On 14 January, lawyer Jood Al Harthi became the first Saudi woman to be appointed as political affairs officer at the Executive Office of the Secretary-General of the United Nations in New York. Saudi Arabia also hosted its first-ever women’s international friendly football tournament and the country’s first female international referee was appointed by FIFA. Saudi women now comprise 37 per cent of the workforce and the efforts come as part of government reforms to strengthen women’s rights. Gender equality has been advanced most notably in the laws surrounding traffic, travel documentation, civil status, labour and social insurance. Nevertheless, despite the reforms and opportunities joining the labour market, women in Saudi Arabia still face several forms of discrimination on a legal and social level and the Saudi government continues to target and repress women's rights activists and movements.
Sources: Arab News, Al Arabiya, The National News, Al Jazeera, Middle East Monitor (1), The National News (2), Amnesty International
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