China
China (中国), officially the People’s Republic of China, exhibits low performance across all four categories in the Global State of Democracy Framework. Since it does not hold national elections, its Representation score is 0. It is among the world’s top 25 per cent of performers in Basic Welfare but falls in the bottom 25 per cent in most other factors, including Civil Liberties and Judicial Independence. Measured by nominal GDP, it is the world’s second largest economy (and first if measured by Purchasing Power Parity). China has a mixed market economy, significantly influenced by the state through strategic plans and state-owned enterprises. It is the world’s biggest exporter and manufacturer and the leading consumer of several natural resources.
China has been headed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) since 1949. The end of the century of humiliation (1839-1949), which still influences the official public narrative, marked the beginning of modern China. Xi Jinping leads China today, having assumed leadership in 2012. He ushered in an anti-corruption campaign that was also used to eliminate much of the internal opposition to Xi’s rule. With the elimination of term limits, the change of internal rules of the CCP, and the assumption of an unprecedented third term, Xi Jinping effectively ended China’s collective leadership system, which had been implemented to protect against the abuses of previous regimes, and greatly expanded the day-to-day presence of the CCP in society. The CPP has similarly centralized its control over the country’s legal systems and regulatory bodies, as reflected in its inaugural “Plan on Building the Rule of Law in China (2020-2025).
Uninterrupted economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s resulted in an extreme reduction in poverty. It also gave rise to more demands for political rights, culminating in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protest. Post-Tiananmen China saw further gradual economic liberalization and growth.
China also faces internal territorial challenges. It disputes Taiwan’s independence, and its foreign policy has become increasingly assertive around its claim. In Hong Kong, China has repeatedly breached the One Country, Two Systems agreement that was designed to allow Hong Kong to maintain its own political system until 2047. The new security law enacted in Hong Kong in 2024 has heightened concerns regarding the erosion of civil liberties. Of special concern for human rights are the crimes against humanity committed by China in the two autonomous regions of Tibet and Xingang. These regions, the only two where the ethnic Han are not a majority, are subject to invasive surveillance, cultural repression and, especially in Xinjiang, mass detention and “re-education” in concentration camps.
China’s performance on gender equality has been static in the lower-mid range over the past decades. Women’s educational and professional achievements have been remarkable, yet gender wage gaps and unequal political representation – including the all-male Politburo Standing Committee – remain stark. Gender violence and discrimination are widespread, and feminist and LGBQTIA+ rights movements are suppressed. Reproductive rights remain limited, though the One-Child Policy was relaxed in 2015. Ethnic Uyghurs in Xinjiang face harsher consequences as a result of the government efforts to curb population growth.
Looking ahead, China will continue to be shaped by Xi Jinping’s total control of the CCP and the state. It will be important to watch events in Hong Kong and Xinjiang, which could impact Rights and Rule of Law. Internationally, it will be critical to watch how China’s growing influence in the world impacts democratization elsewhere and at home.
Last updated: June 2025
https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/
December 2025
Hong Kong media tycoon Jimmy Lai convicted on national security offences
On 15 December, the High Court in Hong Kong convicted pro-democracy media tycoon Jimmy Lai on sedition and foreign collusion charges under the 2020 Hong Kong National Security Law. The verdict is widely seen as a decisive setback to press freedom and free expression in Hong Kong, illustrating a deeper erosion of judicial independence since the imposition of the National Security Law. The final verdict comes after 156 days of hearings and follows Lai’s five years’ custody in pre-trial detention. United Nations officials and human rights organizations have condemned the conviction and identified serious due process violations during the trial. Lai faces a possible life sentence, with sentencing expected in January 2026.
Sources: International IDEA (1), International IDEA (2), OHCHR, South China Morning Post, The Guardian
October 2025
Crackdown on ‘underground churches’ escalates
From 10 to 11 October, Chinese authorities arrested over 30 staff members and pastors linked to the unregistered Protestant house-church network Zion Church across several cities. Many of those arrested were charged with ‘illegal use of information networks’ under a law that carries a three-year prison sentence. This represents the largest crackdown on underground churches in China since 2018 and is part of the government's campaign to ‘sinicize’ religion. Since 2018, Xi Jinping’s government has tightened regulations governing religious groups to assert ideological control. The arrests followed the implementation of a new online code of conduct for religious personnel in September, which prohibits the distribution of religious content among unlicensed groups, such as sermons, online. While legally justified under Chinese laws, rights experts describe the increasing arrests as arbitrary, stemming from mandatory state registrations that are viewed as excessive and restrictive.
Sources: BBC News,Human Rights Watch, Deutsche Welle, South China Morning Post, CHRD
September 2025
Draft law on ‘ethnic unity’ raises minority rights concerns
On 8 September, the draft Law on Promoting Ethnic Unity and Progress was submitted to the National People’s Congress (legislature). The proposed law alters China’s legal framework governing minority rights, introducing mandatory requirements in education, housing and family life that promote a ‘common consciousness of the Chinese nation.’ The law standardizes the use of Mandarin across all sectors, removing key protections under the 1984 Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law, which allowed minorities to ‘use and develop their own spoken and written languages.’ For example, Mandarin must now ‘take the lead’ and accompany all official documents issued in native languages and is mandated in schools starting from pre-school. Additionally, it criminalizes acts deemed to ‘damage ethnic unity.’ Rights experts have warned that the legal framework will serve to justify the intensified repression of minorities in China, including Tibetans, Mongolians, Uyghurs and diaspora activists.
Sources: Human Rights Watch, South China Morning Post, Jurist, NPC Observer, International IDEA, ChinaAid
June 2024
Hundreds of Uygur villages renamed in Xinjiang
According to Human Rights Watch, Chinese authorities have systematically been renaming villages in Xinjiang, removing names with Uyghur and Islamic cultural meanings in favour of those reflecting Communist Party ideology. A June report identified 630 such changes from 2009 to 2023. Human rights experts have raised concerns that the move is part of the Chinese government's broader efforts to erase the cultural and religious expression of Uyghurs. The Chinese government has, over the past few years, denied allegations of abuse and repression in the region.
Sources: Nikkei Asia, Human Rights Watch, The Guardian, International IDEA (1), International IDEA (2), Al Jazeera
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