Estonia
Estonia performs in the high range in all four categories of the Global State of Democracy (GSoD) conceptual framework. Compared to 2018, the country’s scores have declined in Rule of Law and Representation, although it continues to perform highly in both categories. Estonia has an advanced digital economy and a high level of human development, yet suffers from high economic inequality, especially inequality of net wealth. The economy features a dominant services sector (particularly engineering and telecommunications), and to a lesser extent strong manufacturing and textiles industries.
Estonia re-gained independence from the Soviet Union (USSR) in 1991 (it had been independent from 1918 to 1940), and its transition to democracy was powered by an active civil society, which provided a reformist core to the new political elite, committed to rule of law institutions. Digitalization is regarded as one of the main factors in the country's post-Communism success, with a digitalized public sector contributing to transparent and efficient governance as well as low levels of corruption perceptions. Stronger polarization has appeared recently. As in the rest of Europe, the populist right is gaining influence, due to the rising cost of living and intensifying cultural divides. Issues such as ‘family values’ and immigration are increasingly salient.
Another important social divide relates to the large Russian-speaking minority (around 25 per cent of the population). Democratization in Estonia was strongly ethnicized, partly because of the repression of national identity during Soviet occupation. After regaining independence, the political doctrine of legal restoration considered all Soviet-era settlers as immigrants, and some believed that these settlers should return to their countries of origin. The introduction of assertive naturalization policies led to deep political and economic inequalities, such as unequal electoral participation and residential segregation between Estonians and the Russian-speaking minority.
Still, prior to Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, ethnic relations had been minimally politicized. Estonian political parties supported by Russian-speaking voters are among the country’s biggest parties and have regularly been included in the governing coalition; this plays a role in defusing ethnic-based mobilization. Moreover, there are notable efforts to address the segregation of communities.
Estonia is consistently high performing in Gender Equality. While existing challenges are most notable in attaining equal access to social and economic decision-making, Estonia continues to make progress, including through a reduction in the gender pay gap. Additionally, women’s representation in the Riigikogu set a new record in 2023, with 30 elected women in the 101 seat parliament. In 2023, Estonia became the first Baltic state to legalize same-sex marriage.
In the years to come, it will be important to watch for how developments in the digitalization of voting, including the introduction of a fully electronic voter registration and ID system and the approval of mobile voting, impact Credible Elections. The 2023 parliamentary elections marked the first time that the number of votes cast online surpassed those in polling stations. Additionally, increasingly tense relations between Estonia and Russia should be watched, especially because of the threat of foreign interference and the potential implications on Civil Liberties of a proposed law which would suspend the right of Russian citizens to vote in local elections.
Last updated: July 2024
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March 2025
Parliament passes amendments restricting right to vote in local elections
On 26 March, Parliament approved constitutional amendments revoking the right to vote in local elections for third-country nationals residing in Estonia. The amendments were sparked by national security concerns and debates around the legislation have focused on citizens of Russia and Belarus. The changes will take effect in the upcoming 19 October 2025 local elections. Stateless people, most of whom are Russian-speaking minorities who did not qualify for citizenship at the time of the fall of the Soviet Union, will lose this right starting in 2026. The proposal’s sponsors argued that the transition period would give them time to apply for Estonian citizenship if they wish to vote in future local elections. The bill passed with 93 votes in favour and 7 against under an urgent procedure. In the 2021 local elections, over 139,281 non-citizens were registered to vote (excluding citizens of EU member states) out of a total 1,074,046 people on the register, including 70,446 Russians.
Sources: Riigikogu (1), Riigikogu (2), ERR (1), ERR (2), ConstitutionNet, International IDEA
November 2024
Government proposes constitutional amendments stripping some non-citizens of local voting rights
On 6 November, the government introduced a bill to amend the constitution in Parliament, which would remove the right of certain non-citizens living in Estonia to vote in local elections. The bill is narrowly tailored to affect Russian and Belarusian citizens, citing national security concerns. The draft amendments would guarantee local voting rights for stateless people in the Constitution, in addition to EU citizens and NATO countries--considered to share Estonia’s democratic values and security interests. The bill passed its first reading in Parliament on 20 November, and will be considered in the second reading in at least three months’ time, as required by the Constitution. There are an estimated 83,500 Russian citizens living in Estonia, roughly a third of whom have previously taken part in local elections according to Estonian public broadcaster ERR. Local elections are scheduled for October 2025.
Sources: ConstitutionNet, ERR (1), ERR (2), Riigikogu (1), Riigikogu (2), Riigikogu (3)
June 2024
Parliament approves measures to prevent spread of terrorist content online
On 19 June, Parliament approved amendments to the Information Society Services Act and the penal code to tackle the dissemination of terrorist content online and counter the spread of extremism. The changes no longer require incitement to acts of terrorism to be of a public nature, but also criminalise incitement to terrorism - for example - in moderated forums. Additionally, the changes seek to harmonise Estonian law with EU regulations, in force since 2022, enhancing cooperation with hosting service providers operating in the EU to remove terrorist content online. The regulation includes safeguards to protect freedom of expression, enabling service providers to contest a removal order, and ensuring transparency via annual reporting requirements. Hosting service providers are also required to inform users of content removal, provide access to a complaints procedure, and ensure means of restoring erroneously removed content. The law enters into force on 14 July.
Sources: Riigikogu, Rigi Teataja (1), Rigi Teataja (2), Ministry of the Interior, ERR, European Commission
June 2023
Parliament approves same-sex marriage
Lawmakers in Estonia’s 101-seat parliament have approved amendments to the Family Act, with 55 votes in favour and 34 against, allowing for same-sex marriage. The country is now the first in Central Europe with such legislation. The law was pushed forward after the liberal coalition government led by Prime Minister Kaja Kallas took office in March. Although same-sex couples had won the right to enter into civil unions in 2014, the new law allows same-sex marriage and addresses legal loopholes that prevented same-sex couples from enjoying the same adoption and parental recognition rights as heterosexual couples. The new legislation will come into effect in 2024.
Sources: Estonian Public Broadcasting (ERR), Politico, Al Jazeera, Human Rights Watch
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