On 3 September 2025, Jamaica held a general election to elect all 63 members of the lower chamber, the House of Representatives. The elections are conducted using a first-past-the-post electoral system and the elected members serve a five-year term (IPU n.d.).
After the collapse of the previous right-wing government, the Netherlands held snap elections on 29 October 2025 (FGS Global 2025). The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy with the government having executive power and the bicameral parliament holding legislative authority.
On 3–4 October 2025, Czechs went to the polls to vote in parliamentary elections. All 200 seats in the Chamber of Deputies were contested. The elections were conducted using a list proportional system with votes converted into seats according to the Imperiali quota, which is calculated by dividing the total number of votes by the number of seats plus two (Chamber of Deputies n.d.).
After a period of deep political polarization, especially regarding EU integration versus Russian influence, Moldova held parliamentary elections on 28 September 2025 (PACE 2025).
In May 2025, Romania held repeat presidential elections to select the country’s head of state. This followed the annulment of the 2024 presidential election on 6 December, just two days before the second and final round of votes was scheduled to take place.
Ireland held its general elections on 29 November 2024, to elect the 34th Dáil Éireann (lower house of parliament), following the dissolution of the 33rd Dáil on 8 November 2024 (Halpin 2024).
On 9 October Prime Minister Ishiba Shigeru dissolved parliament just eight days into his term of office. He called the general election in a climate of low public trust in the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) stemming from a series of “money and politics” scandals (Nippon.com 2024; Miyake 2024).
Presidential elections in the Republic of Croatia were held on 29 December 2024. After no candidate won a majority in the first round, a second round was held on 12 January 2025 (International IDEA 2024; Tesija 2024).
Romania held parliamentary elections—to the Chamber of Deputies and Senate—on 1 December 2024. The bicameral parliament operates under a proportional (list) system with members elected for four years. Party quotas on gender balance are voluntary only – 22 per cent of seats in the lower house are currently held by women MPs (International IDEA n.d.a.).
Ghana conducted presidential and parliamentary elections (for all 276 seats) on 7 December 2024.
