After a period of deep political polarization, especially regarding EU integration versus Russian influence, Moldova held parliamentary elections on 28 September 2025 (PACE 2025).

In May 2025, Romania held repeat presidential elections to select the country’s head of state. This followed the annulment of the 2024 presidential election on 6 December, just two days before the second and final round of votes was scheduled to take place. 

Ireland held its general elections on 29 November 2024, to elect the 34th Dáil Éireann (lower house of parliament), following the dissolution of the 33rd Dáil on 8 November 2024 (Halpin 2024).

On 9 October Prime Minister Ishiba Shigeru dissolved parliament just eight days into his term of office. He called the general election in a climate of low public trust in the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) stemming from a series of “money and politics” scandals (Nippon.com 2024; Miyake 2024).

Presidential elections in the Republic of Croatia were held on 29 December 2024. After no candidate won a majority in the first round, a second round was held on 12 January 2025 (International IDEA 2024; Tesija 2024).

Romania held parliamentary elections—to the Chamber of Deputies and Senate—on 1 December 2024. The bicameral parliament operates under a proportional (list) system with members elected for four years. Party quotas on gender balance are voluntary only – 22 per cent of seats in the lower house are currently held by women MPs (International IDEA n.d.a.).

Ghana conducted presidential and parliamentary elections (for all 276 seats) on 7 December 2024.

On 5 November the US elected the president and members of the Senate and House of Representatives. US voters cast their ballots for electors, which in turn act as delegates of a state’s voters in electing the president. There are 538 electors, which cast their votes for the majority presidential candidate of each state after the general election.

On 30 October 2024, Botswana held elections for its 65-member National Assembly. Members serve five-year terms – 57 are elected, by single-seat constituencies through plurality vote; six are nominated by the President; and the President and the Speaker are the remaining two members (IFES n.d).

Sri Lanka’s Parliament consists of 225 seats. Of these 196 are directly elected from 22 multi-member districts and 29 are chosen via a national open-list proportional system. Seat allocation by district is determined by the Election Commission based on population. After President Dissanayake's victory in the presidential election 21 September 2024, Parliament was dissolved, leading to a snap parliamentary election on 14 November.